OHS Learning-Discussion Paper
Note The term training is to a certain extent redundant in modern adult education, the term learning is becoming more common, there are good reasons for this which I will not bore you with. The move to the term learning recognises that much of what has been regarded as training has not been successful in achieving the desired behaviour change. Learning must be followed up in the workplace.
Need OHS learning for-
Management
Supervisors ( largely how to manage people)
Tradesmen
Apprentices & trainees
Production employees
Office-based staff
OHS staff
All staff
Health & Safety Representatives
Rehabilitation Coordinators
First-aiders
Fire Safety Advisers
Action learning and experiential learning models (see the attached paper for details, if you are interested ,have proven to be very effective for adults. These models emphasise “learning by doing” and critical reflection
Adult learners prefer learning that is practical
For adults interactive rather than passive learning strategies are preferred. Avoid the lecture wherever possible. Keep in mind peoples concentration quickly wanes after 15 minutes in a traditional training session.
It has been suggested that we retain:
10 percent of what we read;
20 percent of what we hear;
30 percent of what we see;
50 percent of what we hear and see;
70 percent of what we say;
90 percent of what we say and do.
Saying and doing are certainly important for retention and later application.
As well as making your employees safer, learning targeted at the real needs of the organisation can make real gains in productivity. The aim is to make people life-long learners
Competencies represent K.S.A. (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Attitudes)
Is progression through competencies built into the industrial agreement?
Rather than recording attendance at learning sessions it is important to record the fact that competencies have been attained
At the most basic level you need detailed task analysis of main tasks (Job Safety Analysis comes in handy) and Training Needs Analysis(involvement of the blokes on the floor essential for this)
Need to refer to the recognised National Training Packages
Need a computerised system of recording attendance at learning, assessments and a means of flagging dates for re-training
To avoid training people and setting them up to move on to a better job with another employer some employers restrict recognition of competency to the enterprise level where possible and legal
A Learning Matrix which lists the learning requirements of all levels of staff is not a bad idea
Attendance at learning is incorporated as part of the performance appraisal process with the development of individual learning plans
Need a manual describing content and required levels of staff to attend the various learning experiences
Need to benchmark against proven OHS learning organisations in a similar industry
For other than the most simple learning need defined outcomes (What the learner will know, be able to do and feel at the end of the learning experience)
For all but the most simple learning need objectives-A statement of terminal behaviour, a statement of the standard expected and a statement of the conditions under which expected to perform the terminal behaviour
Need a session plan for each learning experience emphasising the must knows, a feedback sheet, a method of learner assessment, in some cases a “Joining Instruction” detailing how, when & why learning will be conducted could be provided to the learner and the supervisor.
Much learning is ineffective because of lack of follow-up in the workplace, an important task for the supervisor.
The whole learning effort must be evaluated at least annually to ensure the required behaviour change is being achieved in a cost effective manner.
Reflective journals are becoming recognised as a powerful means of learning. Reflective journals can be filled out daily, weekly or when you get around to it, you record details of your experiences and then ask yourself “What went well?” and “What opportunities for improvement were presented?” and record these. Not for everybody and some say more for managers and supervisors but I have seen them work well for front-line employees as well.
Suggested safety learning needs without an analysis of needs particularly for tradesmen and production workers
1 There is now a legally accredited course for Health & Safety representatives
2There is a legally accredited course for Workplace Health & Safety Officers (W.H.S.O.) If an organisation has over 30 employees they must have an accredited W.H.S.O.
3 It is a legal requirement in Qld. that emergency evacuation procedures and use of fire extinguishers be explained at induction learning
4 It is a legal requirement in Qld. that all employees attend refresher learning on emergency procedures and participate in a fire drill annually
5 I would recommend a simple “learning kit” (one or 2 page handout, maybe a few power-points, maybe a targeted video) be prepared for supervisors / safety staff to use at tool-box meetings for subjects such as manual handling, use of P.P.E., noise, management of fatigue, emergency procedures ,hazardous substances and so on
6 There is a need for refresher learning for things like first-aid certificates and W.H.S.O. accreditation
7 You have to submit an Employee Rehabilitation Plan to the State Government if you manage your workers compensation through Workcover, and appoint & train a Rehabilitation Co-ordinator , refresher learning every 3 years I think.
8 There is now a course for statutory Fire Safety Advisers
9 The current trend in OHS is to introduce Wellness Programs(healthy nutrition, stress management, healthy lifestyle, etc.)This is seen as important with an aging workforce. Various learning programs are associated with this.
If you are interested in the theories of adult learning you might find the following of value, if not give it a miss.
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ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS - BACK TO BASICS
George Robotham- Dip Trg & Assess. Sys. , Dip. Frontline Mgt., B. Ed. ( Adult and Workplace Ed.),Grad. Cert Management of Organisational Change, Grad. Dip. Occupational Hazard Management, C.F.S.I.A., R.S.P. (Aust.), M.A.S.S.E., C.A.H.R.I., M.A.I.T.D., J.P.(Qual.),Australian Defence Medal
ABSTRACT
One of the activities we all do in business is "training" others. It is my contention that modern adult learning principles are not practiced frequently or well in general "training" in industry and in consequence the learning experience is not as successful as it could be. This paper explores the characteristics of the adult learner and provides a number of learning principles that must be practiced to maximise learning. The role of critical reflection is explored and it is explained why the traditional lecture is to be avoided. For learning to be effective opportunities for critical reflection must be given via an activity, group discussion, case study, practical exercise etc.
Models of action learning and experiential learning are presented and it is explained why these 2 learning approaches are particularly appropriate for adults.
"Learn a little well" is a motto that must be practiced, in industry the alternate approach is often adopted where trainers only have an audience for a limited time and endeavour to stuff as much into the learners as they can in the time allocated.
The workplace can be a "robust and transferable" environment for learning, the benefits of using the workplace in learning are explored.
The paper will be presented as an interactive discussion that aims to put the learning principles spoken about into practice.
1 INTRODUCTION
The teaching of adults (androgogy) has many differences to the teaching of children and other young people (pedagogy).
Adults have considerable life experience to bring to the training room and are more likely to question training input that does not accord with their life experience.
This brings considerable challenges but also considerable satisfaction to the facilitator.
2 ANDROGOGY
Critical reflection is an important element in androgogy and this happens most naturally when the content of a class invites involvement, when students are encouraged to respond to the material by drawing in a disciplined way from their life experiences. For students creative reflection and criticism depend on seeing themselves as central to their learning, a feat accomplished not by a teacher saying that something is "student-centred" but through the experience of being at the centre. Reflection helps move learners to greater complexity and sophistication in their understanding of any material presented.
Tough (1979) has demonstrated that mature learners frequently prefer to be in charge of their own learning with only minimal direction from an instructor, facilitator or resource. This has prompted a change in the role of the instructor from that of content giver to learning manager, facilitator and resource locator. The traditional role of instructors was to impart knowledge to receptive learners, nowadays the instructor facilitates and manages the learning process itself.(Heimstra,11)Therefore the instructor or trainer works to assist individuals in taking responsibility for their learning.
The following is a selection of theoretical concepts relevant to facilitation of adult learning.
What the adult learning theory means to the learning facilitator.
Minimise the use of lecture style presentations.
There is room for the content expert to explain the theory but this should be minimised.
For the learning to have meaning activities should be organised to allow participants to discover the concepts for themselves (not always an easy thing to do). Discussions, case studies, practical exercises, role plays are preferred. These are usually more effective learning methods than the lecture but they take a longer period of time. Activities must be as close to real life as possible and a content expert must be on hand should participants feel the need for his/her input.
Some theoretical input is given and the opportunity for critical reflection (via an activity or discussion) is important.
Assessment is regarded as an opportunity to revise concepts as well as evaluation.
The focus must be on the learner not the facilitator.
Learning objectives must be stated for each session and a participative process put in place to achieve these objectives.
Learning must relate to learners prior experience and knowledge.
Avoid the impression that the facilitator is the all knowing "expert", rather he/she is an organiser and facilitator of a participative supportive learning environment.
Far too often training activities are devised by trainers or managers who are removed from the workplace environment of trainees. The content represents what the trainer or manager thinks is what is required, often this approach misses the mark. Major efforts must be made to consult with the work force on their perceived training needs. The SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE and ATTITUDES (OR ABILITIES) to perform tasks must be examined to gain insight into deficiencies; in some cases when gaps between current competencies and desired competencies are revealed, training will be an appropriate remedy.
Explain "What's in it for me" early in the session and elicit participants expectations of the training in initial stages.
Learning must be appropriate for what is necessary for people to do the job.
Have frequent breaks and don't overload participants with theory.
You might like to keep the following phrases in your mind.
Learning is what you do to yourself.
Training is what others do to you.
Learn a little - well.
Interactive Learning Strategies
For adults interactive rather than passive learning strategies are preferred.
It has been suggested that we retain:
10 percent of what we read;
20 percent of what we hear;
30 percent of what we see;
50 percent of what we hear and see;
70 percent of what we say;
90 percent of what we say and do.
Saying and doing are certainly important for retention and later application.
Interactive strategies, provide advantages to both student and teacher, compared with other methods:
They suit most learning styles.
Interactive strategies help us achieve a wide range of objectives.
Most students enjoy learning or consolidating knowledge by taking part in such activities. They enjoy the variety.
Smith and Delahaye Learning Principles
In their excellent text How To Be An Effective Trainer (Smith and Delahaye.(1983,9-23 ) refer to certain learning principles.
Whole or part learning Divide the learning into manageable segments and work from the known to the unknown.
Spaced Learning Learning that is spaced at reasonable levels is usually superior to massed or crammed learning if you want long term retention.
Active Learning
If trainees are actively involved in the learning process (instead of listening passively), they will learn more effectively and become self-motivated. Active learning is often described as "learning by doing".
Feedback
Give the trainees feedback on progress early and regularly and also obtain feedback on how you are progressing as a trainer.
Overlearning
Stated simply, overlearning means learning until one has perfect recall - and then learning it some more. In other words, forgetting is significantly reduced by frequently attempting to recall learned material.
Reinforcement
Learning that is rewarded is much more likely to be retained.
Primacy and Recency
Given any sequence of facts, trainees will tend to remember what they heard first and last. What they heard in the middle they often forget. Therefore, emphasise and reinforce facts that are in the middle.
Meaningful Material
When presented with new information, we unconsciously ask two questions:
Is this information valid when I compare it with experiences I've had in the past?
Will this information be useful to me in the immediate future?
The implication of these questions means that one must move from the known to the unknown and ensure information is readily usable by participants.
Multiple-Sense Learning
Always use sight and hearing but do not neglect the other senses.
Transfer of Learning
The amount of learning that trainees transfer from the training room to the workplace depends, mainly, on two variables:
The degree of similarity between what was learned in the training program (and this includes how it was presented) and what occurs at the workplace.
How easily the trainees can integrate into the work environment the skills or knowledge gained in the training program.
The presence of these two variables stresses the importance of referring continually to the workplace when looking for ideas on how to present information or skills and when designing activities and tests for the training session.
Retention and Transfer of Learning
In order for learning to occur successfully, the adult learner must (Morgan, Holmes and Bundy, 1976):
Be motivated to learn.
Establish an attentional set.
Be in a state of developmental readiness to learn.
Be in an environment conducive to learning.
Adults are best motivated to learn when that which is to be learned relates or is meaningful to their needs, goals, habits, values, and self-concept. The adult's willingness to participate in learning depends upon such factors as: perception of the value of learning, acceptance of what and how to learn, need for self-esteem or social affiliation with others, and expectations from life.
Teachers of adult learners can facilitate the retention and transfer of learning by such activities as the following:-
Encouraging the learner to search for relationships between what is currently being learned and past learning.
Providing reviews in which the learner encounters previously learned material within new activities.
Providing well-distributed practice in problem solving.
Relating materials learned in instruction to the abilities, needs and interests of the learner.
Stressing generalisations, but making certain that the learner understands the meaning and factual basis for each generalisation thought.
Scheduling frequent tests or in other ways creating a "set" to remember.
Inducing low stress by arranging for success or anticipation of successful experiences in learning.
Lawler’s Principles of Adult Education (Lawler 1991)
Adult education requires a physical and social climate of respect.
A collaborative mode of learning is central to adult education.
Adult education includes and builds on the experience of the participant.
Adult education fosters critical reflective thinking.
Problem posing and problem solving are fundamental aspects of adult education.
Learning for action is valued in adult education.
Adult education is best facilitated in a participative environment.
Adult education empowers the participant.
In The Keys to Adult Learning Theory and Practical Strategies Lawler offers practical advice on utilising these adult learning principles and is well-worth a read.
Action Learning
There is a large body of research literature that suggests that action learning is particularly appropriate for adults.
Learning may be defined (Mezirow 1991,1) as the process of making a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of an experience which guides subsequent understanding, appreciation and action. Critical reflection involves a critique of the pre-suppositions on which our beliefs have been built.
Marsick (1991, 23-45) speaks about action learning (Project work on real-life problems and reflection where participants draw out the lessons learned from their project work.)
There are three key components of the action/learning facilitation process : action, reflection and the building of ones own theories (Marsick 1991, 32-33). The action component is developed in two ways " through appropriate experience provided by the project work and through an action oriented approach to the way in which people learn from experience.
For action learning to be effective (Marsick 1991, 44) a climate must be fostered that allows participants to examine beliefs, practices and norms. The facilitator must make sure learners look at problems from many perspectives, challenge one another, ask stupid questions, draw contrasts, probe connections and try out new behaviours.
The video "An Introduction to Action Learning" The National Staff Development Committee (1995) outlines the benefits and process of action learning.
The following equation is referred to:
L = P + Q where L = Learning
P = Programmed knowledge balanced with
Q = Questioning insight
Experiential Learning
This has some similarities to action learning and once again is thought to be particularly relevant to adult learners.
Boud, Cohen and Walker (1993, 8-16) have developed five propositions which will help the adult educator to develop effective experiential learning.
Experience is the foundation and stimulus for learning.
Learners actively construct their experience.
Learning is a holistic experience.
Learning is socially and culturally constructed.
Learning is influenced by the socio-emotional context in which it occurs.
Kolb and Fry (1975, 33) have developed an experiential learning model.
Figure 1 : Experiential Learning Model, Kolb and Fry (1975, 33)
Experiential learning is based on three assumptions (Johnson 1990, 20). People learn best when they are personally involved in the learning experience; knowledge has to be discovered if it is to mean anything or make a difference in behaviour and commitment to learning is highest when people are free to act their own learning goals and actively pursue them within a given framework.
The process of experiential learning is shown below. (Johnson 1990, 20) The learner reflects on their concrete experiences and examines their meaning in order to formulate a set of concepts or principles. The sequence is concrete personal experiences followed by:-
Observation and reflection and examination of one's experiences and this leads to the formulation of abstract concepts and generalisations which leads to hypotheses to be tested in future action.
Figure 2 : Experiential Learning Cycle (Johnson 1990, 20)
Tips for adult & workplace trainers
In his text “How to create and deliver a dynamic presentation” Doug Malouf makes the following points
The 10 major mistakes speakers make
Failing to speak to time-set a time limit, stick to it, be ruthless with self
The material is not suited to the audience-research 3 people, what do they know, what would they like to know
Information overload-limit the information, bit size pieces, leave something out
The material is too technical-do not use jargon, know your audience, pitch it to their level
Poor preparation-you’re on before you are on, trust no-one, check everything
Failure to practice speech-practice to an imaginary audience
Distracting visuals/ verbals / vocals
Inappropriate pace-vary your speed
Lack of eye contact-maintain
Lack of enthusiasm
Malouf talks of the “Apple-Tree Approach” to developing a lesson-plan for a speech or talk
Have a look at his text and give it a try.
5 golden rules of handouts (Malouf)
Must be simple
Must be directly related to the purpose of your presentation
Must have high visual impact
Must not distract the participants
Must be the same color
5 golden rules of humor (Malouf)
You must think it is funny
Must not bruise egos
Should be on you
Should be timed
Should be tested
7 ground rules for participation (Malouf)
No risk
Must be clear
Must be able to do the task
Must be easy & fun
Must undo what you do
Must set time
No role play
Laurie Kelly of Mindworks, a Brisbane-based company specializing in training trainers gave the following practical tips to trainers during a course this author attended
Change state every 10 minutes-Get up & stretch, move camp, go & get, otherwise have participants move
To gain an understanding of a group’s existing knowledge-ring some a few days before-hand, discuss a topical question in groups, traffic lights(cards, green agree, yellow undecided, red disagree),sit down, stand up, show of hands
Relaxation-at least 8 glasses of water a day, cross legs, cross hands twist hands to chest, relax for a minute, eyes closed-join fingers place on chest for a minute
Time keeping for breaks-get groups to appoint a time keeper
Use music at beginning, breaks switch off to focus on task.
Ask to visualise a quiet place where you would like to be as a change of pace half way through the day
List things you had to do to get here
List things you could be doing instead of being here, put them in an envelope at the back of the room and pick up when you leave.
Have a box of chocolate frogs for helpers
When asking for input in a circle use cards to nominate instead of going around in turn
Pre-reading-At night read the manual and prepare 5 questions for the group
Appreciative enquiry-Find out what worked well and build on it.
Evaluation What am I pleased with? What have I still got to do?
Put borders around chart using different colours ,use heaps of colours on charts, place charts around room & use to revise or after lunch have an ideas so far session
Do not write on white-board yourself, ties you up and you lose eye contact with the group, nominate person with birthday in August
Philosophers walk-At end of day go in pairs and discuss the learnings from the day that are displayed on the charts around the wall.
Use shiny paper not butchers paper, butchers paper draws ink out of pens.
Have a table-What I know, What I want to know, What I have learnt-helps to engage learners in a topic
Round Robin (alternate to brain storming)-List ideas/responses on a sheet, ask groups to designate 3-4 top ideas, groups feedback responses to facilitator and whiteboard-affirms, participation, piggy backs new ideas, ownership
List plus, minus, interesting on a sheet
Effective instructors of adults are those who help learners become more self-sustaining, more intellectually curious and more capable of learning by themselves (Heimstra,37)
Apps (1981-145-6) says the excellent instructors follow nine instructional principles
Learn to know your students
Use the students experiences as class content
Where possible tie theory to practice
Provided a climate conducive to learning
Offer a variety of formats
Offer a variety of techniques
Provide students feedback on their progress
Help students acquire other resources
Be available to students for out-of-class contacts
I Artistry in Training
In her text “Artistry in Training” Stephanie Burns makes a number of points about training skills. Burns text is short on practical tips for trainers but gives an excellent overview of the nature of effective training and the role of the trainer.
The 3 qualities of professional trainers (Burns)
A broad range and flexibility of behaviours-what can convincingly be done in the communication context.
A heightened sensitivity to, and awareness of, the effects of the trainer’s behaviours on the individual learner’s experience.
The cohesive organisation of subject material-in other words, the ability to organise material so that when it is expressed verbally, it makes sense and is relevant.
The 6 stages of training design (Burns)
Define outcomes
What will the student know, be able to do or feel as a result of having attended the training?
How will we know if the student has achieved that set of outcomes?
Defining outcomes let students know what to expect and decide if it is relevant to them.
Determine the starting level
The trainer needs some means of assessing current skills, knowledge and abilities so they can pitch the start of the training at the correct level. Too low a level will bore, too high a level will confuse.
Identify the content consists of
Identifying the content
Clustering the content by main topic
Making a decision regarding depth or breadth
Sequence the clusters consists of
Sequence the content by main topic-post-its on the wall help here
Sequence the content between topics
This discovers if the sequence flows logically from one piece of content to the next.
Choose the method of delivery
There are many methods of delivery. Here are a few
Lectures
Games
Videos
Computer simulations
Interactive facilitation
Group processes
Role-plays
Assignments
Stories
Case studies
Analysing scenarios
Simulations
Demonstrations
Question and answer sessions
Brainstorming exercises
Modelling
Visual / audio-visual media
J The Importance of Preparation
A wise man once said “Prior Preparation Prevents P-ss Poor Performance”
We need to ask questions such as these (Minton,1997,46)
WHO
Who am I going to teach?
What age are they?
What is their background?
Why are they here?
What do they need to learn?
Why do they need to learn it?
What do they know now?
What can they do already?
What are they expecting from me?
WHAT
What are they going to learn?
What do they have to do to learn that?
What do they need to do in order to learn that?
What are they going to learn with?
What do I have to do to provide that?
What do I have to do to help them learn?
WHERE
Where are they going to learn?
Where am I going to teach?
What kind of difficulties are they likely to find there?
What equipment can we use?
How do I get a hold of it, set it up and use it?
What organization and preparation must I do?
WHEN
How much time have I got?
What time of day will it happen?
How often will we meet?
What might be the effects of time of day and frequency?
HOW
Where are they starting from?
Where should I start?
How are they going to learn?
How much am I going to teach?
What pace of learning?
How will we agree our learning goals?
How will I get them working and committed?
Do they want to learn what I am teaching?
How do I engage them in the learning?
What learning problems are likely?
How can I make it easy to learn?
How do I know what and how much they are learning?
How do I get feedback?
How do I use feedback?
How should I adapt what I do to what they need?
Learning in the Workplace
Billett (2001) “Learning in the workplace-Strategies for effective practice” is recommended as a “must-read” for those responsible for facilitating learning in the workplace. Many workers are not prepared for work through vocational education programmes, instead they learnt their vocational practice through working. Traditional educators point out many disadvantages to workplace learning without considering the many problems with a traditional class-room education. One of the distinguishing features of workplace learning is that, unlike class-room learning, it is directly relevant to the work being performed
Billett presents 5 key premises for pedagogy in the workplace
1 Learning is taken as something that occurs as part of everyday thinking and acting.
2 Rather than being premised on the instructional and curriculum practices of educational institutions, a workplace curriculum needs to be founded on the contributions and circumstances afforded by workplace environments
3 It is inadequate to believe that learning simply by “just doing it” will suffice
4 Workplaces are contested terrain and the divisions between various groups may influence workplace learning
5 The worth of the development of vocational knowledge by educational institutions is recognized as complementary to workplace learning..
In Billett (1993, 1) it is argued that informal learning settings such as workplaces provide an optimal place for the acquisition of robust and transferable vocational skills. The training that is conducted is in the workplace using situations as close as practicable to those encountered in the workplace. The process used models the most traditional forms of learning - the notion of an expert novice relationship (Billett 1993,2). The approach used utilises activity theory originally proposed by Vygotsky who claimed that knowledge is socially and culturally constructed. Central to Vygotsky's view is that the relations between the learner and the teacher/expert is socially constructed. Consequently, the quality of the relationship will determine what type of knowledge the novice has access to and is allowed to learn (Billett 1993,3).
Billett (1993,4) maintains the authenticity of learning activities is a determining quality of learning experiences.
Research carried out by Billett (1993,5) in the Queensland Coal Mining Industry revealed a preference for learning by doing on behalf of respondents. The respondents also believed that the expertise for learning was already on site. The following quote from Billett (1993,10) appears relevant.
"The engagement of learners in authentic activities in natural settings, guided by experts with reference to other learners and by allowing the learner to experience both the process and the product of their activities have the potential to make the workplace a powerful learning experience."
Billett (1992,4) indicates the skill development activities and assessment should only be conducted by those who have and are seen to have a strong base of skills in a specific area (a content expert). It is also postulated that activities should closely reflect the activities that are used as part of everyday practice in the workplace (authentic activities). This emphasises the role of natural settings and authentic activities and reflects the research of Glaser (1984), Glaser and Bassok (1989), Collins Brown and Newman (1989), Collins and Duguid (1989), Gott (1989) and Raizer (1991). Billett (1992,5) speculates that a learning process that gives responsibility for the learning to the learner, engages them in dialogue with more expert workers, asks them to problem-solve real situations and then provide an analysis of their approach is appropriate. Billett (1992,6) says that learning tasks must be realistic, challenging but ultimately achievable.
CONCLUSION
Learning for adults can be significantly enhanced by applying adult learning principles and processes to the learning environment. Much "training" of adults in industry does not apply adult learning principles and processes and consequently is less effective than many believe it is. For a fuller discussion on the subject of safety training please refer to the paper "Safety Training-How to Make It Work" by this author.
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Billett,S., 2001,Learning in the workplace-Strategies for effective practice, Allen & Unwin, N.S.W.
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